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| A Journey Through The History Of Computers |
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Timeline December 1998 • Vol.2 Issue 4 |
A Journey Through The History Of Computers | ||
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The invention of computers began before the discovery of electricity. Thousands of years ago, people started seeking easier ways to add and subtract. Though counting with beads may seem a long way from the World Wide Web, the ideas of these first inventors helped foster the technology that has led the computer industry to where it is today. In the following timeline, we'll trace that evolution, highlighting major discoveries and events along the way. If you want more information about some of the people listed in this timeline, see "Who's Who In The Computing World" in this issue. B.C.ca. 500The bead-and-wire abacus, used for adding and subtracting large numbers, is invented in Egypt. A.D.ca. 800Chinese start to use the number zero. 1474 The first patent statute enacted in Venice. ca. 1500 The quadrant, an astronomical and calculational tool, becomes popular in Europe. 1502 The first watch is invented. 1608 The telescope is accidentally invented by Dutch spectacle maker Hans Lippershey. 1617 Scotland's John Napier introduces a system of multiplying by adding numbers and dividing by subtracting. The system, which was called "Napier's Bones," was a mechanical numbering device made of horn, bone, or ivory. 1622 William Oughtred of England invents the circular slide rule. 1623 Germany's Wilhelm Schickard invents the first workable mechanical calculating machine. It's able to add and subtract automatically and multiply and divide semiautomatically. 1624 Professor Henry Briggs of England publishes the first set of modern logarithms, which contains 1,161 errors. 1628 Dutchman Adrian Vlacq fills in the missing pieces to Henry Briggs' work by publishing the first complete set of modern logarithms. 1642 France's Blaise Pascal invents a machine, called the Pascaline, that can add, subtract, and carry between digits. The machine also is used to calculate the exchange rate of national currencies. 1666 Gaspard Schott of Germany creates an Organum Mathematicum, a mathematical mechanical aid that expanded upon "Napier's Bones." 1672 England's Samuel Morland publishes "The Description and Use of Two Arithmetic Instruments," which describes adding machines and a mechanical version of "Napier's Bones." 1674 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz of Germany creates a machine that can add, subtract, multiply, and divide automatically. 1780 American Benjamin Franklin discovers electricity. 1804 Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard completes his fully automated loom, which is programmed by punched cards. 1820 Thomas de Colmar creates the first reliable, useful, commercially successful calculating machine. Over the next 60 years, more than 1,500 of these machines are sold. 1822 England's Charles Babbage begins work on the Difference Engine, which is a device used for producing calculating tablets. 1830s The electric telegraph is invented in England and the United States. 1833 All work on the Difference Engine ends, after a dispute between Charles Babbage and his partner Joseph Clement. Babbage begins designing the Analytical Engine, a device that he said would be able "to solve any equation." He died before the machine was completed. 1853 The Swedish father-and-son team of Georg and Edvard Scheutz completes construction of an operational Difference Engine modeled after Charles Babbage's plans. 1866 The first successful trans-Atlantic cable is laid, stretching from Ireland to Newfoundland. 1867 The typewriter is invented in the United States. 1875 A company called Tanaka Seizosho is established in Japan. The company, which manufactures telegraphic equipment, later merges with another company called Shibaura Seisakusho to form Tokyo Shibarura Denki. Today, that name has been shortened to Toshiba, a worldwide manufacturer of computer products (among other things). ca. 1875 The first properly constructed variable-toothed gear—which will result in a breakthrough in the calculating machine industry—is made. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for his telephone. 1877 The microphone is invented in the United States. 1883 American Thomas Edison discovers the Edison effect, in which electric current flows through a vacuum. 1884 American Dorr E. Felt begins work on the Comptometer, a calculator that would tally results as numbers were entered. 1886 Ottmar Mergenthaler invents the Linotype machine, which produces complete lines of metal type. 1888 William S. Burroughs patents a printing adding machine. 1890 American Herman Hollerith's method of using punched cards to tabulate data is used in the U.S. census. 1891 Henri Genaille's and Edouard Lucas' rulers, similar to "Napier's Bones," are marketed. 1896 Herman Hollerith starts the Tabulating Machine Co., essentially the world's first computer company, which in a roundabout way would eventually become International Business Machines (IBM). 1901 The first radio message (which is a repeated transmission of three-dot Morse code for S) is sent across the Atlantic Ocean. 1903 Yugoslav-American Nikola Tesla, an employee of Thomas Edison, patents the electrical logic circuits that become crucial to addition, subtraction, and multiplication in later machines. 1911 Four New York manufacturing companies merge to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co. (among them, Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Co.). 1920 Czech playwright Karel Capek coins the term "robot" to describe mechanical workers. Radio broadcasting begins in Pittsburgh, Pa., at station KDKA. 1921 Radio Shack opens its first store in Boston. 1924 The Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co. changes its name to International Business Machines (IBM). 1925 MIT's Vannevar Bush creates the differential analyzer, a large-scale analog calculator that can do many kinds of scientific computations. 1927 The television is publicly demonstrated at Bell Telephone Laboratories. 1928 Paul V. Galvin founds the Galvin Manufacturing Corp. in Chicago. The company produces battery eliminators, which allow radios to run on normal household current. L. J. Comrie uses punched cards to calculate the motions of the moon. GE broadcasts "The Queen's Messenger," the first dramatic production on television. 1929 Sales of radio sets reach $900 million, up from $60 million in 1922. 1930 Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer is introduced as the first serious attempt to design a computer that can do many kinds of scientific computations; it is the herald of the modern computer age. 1932 Cambridge physics professor Dr. C. E. Wynn-Williams is the first to use large-scale electronic counters for constructing a binary counter to keep track of events in experiments. 1934 The idea that an automatic calculator would only need a control program, a memory, and an arithmetic unit is advanced by Konrad Zuse, a famous German civil engineer. The Communications Act of 1934 creates the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the agency that will regulate interstate and international communications, including telecommunications. 1936 Alan Turing publishes his landmark paper "On Computable Numbers," in which he outlines what is basically the modern computer. German Konrad Zuse, who sets up a workshop in his parents' apartment, applies for a patent on his mechanical memory, a simple device based upon pins that can be pushed from one side of a slot to another, denoting binary one or zero. 1937 Michigan-born Claude Shannon writes an influential paper that sets the stage for digital computers, linking symbolic logic and electrical circuits. 1938 Konrad Zuse of Germany creates the Z1, one of the first binary digital computers and a machine that could be controlled through a punch tape. 1939 George Stibitz at Bell Telephone Laboratories completes the Complex Number Calculator, which uses Boolean logic to add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers and also provides a foundation for digital computers. The first Radio Shack catalog is published. Iowa State College's John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry have a prototype of the binary-based ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer), which is often considered the first automatic digital computer. William Hewlett and David Packard found Hewlett-Packard and produce their first product, a resistance-capacitance audio oscillator that was purchased by Disney to make the sound track for the film "Fantasia." The company would later become famous for its profitable line of desktop printers. 1940 George Stibitz's Complex Number Calculator is the first machine to be used from a remote location, when it is demonstrated via a remote terminal at the American Mathematical Association Meeting. The National Defense Research Committee is established to organize scientists and engineers for World War II. Motorola produces a "Handy-Talkie," the first handheld two-way radio, for the U.S. Army Signal Corps. 1941 German Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3, a fully operational calculating machine with automatic control. 1942 John Mauchly, a professor of physics at Ursinus College in Pennsylvania, writes a short paper entitled "The Use of High Speed Vacuum Tube Devices for Calculating." 1943 J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly begin construction of the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), the first general-purpose electronic digital calculator. The ENIAC is considered by some to be the first electronic computer and will be used to calculate ballistic firing tables during World War II. The Colossus, which was a programmable, digital machine also considered by some to be the first electronic computer, is operational in England. In England, Dr. C. E. Wynn-Williams agrees to design a wartime code-breaking machine. He calls it "Heath Robinson" after a famous cartoonist known for inventing unique machines. Motorola's Dan Noble designs a "Walkie-Talkie," the first portable FM two-way radio. As opposed to the lighter "Handie-Talkie," the FM version is a 35-pound backpack version. An analog flight simulator project called "Project Whirlwind" is developed at MIT. 1944 The relay-based Harvard-IBM MARK I, a program-controlled, large-scale calculating machine built by a team led by Howard Aiken, goes to work during World War II providing vital calculations for the U.S. Navy. Grace Hopper becomes its first programmer. Several copies of the Colossus are installed at London's Bletchley Park, five days before the Allies land at Normandy. Alan Turing will lead the team that uses the machine to crack top-secret German codes. 1945 Hungarian John von Neumann participates in the creation of the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), a computer capable of storing programs internally and using electronic speed. Von Neumann is often credited with the concept of storing programs. Atlantic Monthly publishes Vannevar Bush's landmark essay "As We May Think," which describes a desk that gives instant access to documents, books, and periodicals stored in microfilm. While working on the construction of the MARK II, Grace Hopper discovers a large moth that has made a relay fail. She tapes the moth in the log book with a note that says, "First actual case of bug being found." Hers is not the first use of the word "bug" in this manner; Hopper was just making a joke. The flight simulator "Project Whirlwind," started in 1943, is switched from analog to digital electronics. 1946 J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly unveil the ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. Later the same year, Eckert and Mauchly leave the Moore School to found their own firm, Electronic Control Co., to design the UNIVAC. Alan Turing, a code-breaking specialist during World War II, designs the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), and Jim Wilkinson is assigned to help him at the National Physical Laboratory. John von Neumann pioneers a computer project at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, attempting to develop a digital computer. The Royal Society awards a grant to found a Computer Laboratory at Manchester University, and Tom Kilburn and Frederic Williams join the project to explore the possibilities of creating an electronic, digital computer. The two will build the SSEM (small-scale electronic machine). F. C. Williams applies for a patent on his cathode-ray tube (CRT) storing device, an original form of random-access memory (RAM). Based upon the ideas behind the EDVAC, construction of the Cambridge Machine, also known as the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), is begun. 1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invent the transresistor, or transistor, at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories. The transistor has the same capabilities as a vacuum tube but is faster, breaks less often, uses less power, and creates less heat. The Harvard-MARK II, an expensive machine that is considerably faster than the MARK I, goes into operation, again under the direction of Howard Aiken. Northrup Aviation completes contract agreement with the Electronic Control Company for BINAC (BINary Automatic Computer), which among other things was the first computer to use magnetic tape as a secondary memory. F. C. Williams' memory system, which was patented in 1946, is now in working order. Norbert Wiener coins the term "cybernetics," which refers to "the science of control and communication in the animal and the machine." 1948 Claude Shannon writes an influential paper founding information theory, which is based upon the idea of the bit being the fundamental unit of data. The prototype of the SSEM (small-scale electronic machine) is in operation at Manchester University. Alan Turing joins the SSEM project, which some consider to be the first electronic computer. IBM builds the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), a computer with 12,000 tubes. Andrew Donald Booth realizes that one of the major problems with the computers designed so far is the lack of storage. He then creates magnetic drum memory, which is two inches long and two inches wide and capable of holding 10 bits per inch. An agreement is made between Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp., previously known as the Electronic Control Co., and the U.S. Census Bureau for the production of the UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC). The computer will be used to aid the Bureau with its large amounts of statistical gathering. The National Bureau of Standards, impatient for commercial computers to appear, begins work on the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC). The 604 multiplying punch, based upon vacuum tube technology, is produced by IBM. Television is starting to divert radio's audiences. 1949 The EDSAC, built by Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge University, makes its first run. Considered by some to be the first electronic computer, the EDSAC is personified by a stored memory. The National Bureau of Standards Institute for Numerical Analysis starts on the SEAC's counterpart, the Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC). Pilot ACE, a pilot project for the rapid and complex Automatic Computer Engine, is going through production at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, England. The design of ACE is largely credited to Alan Turing. Claude Shannon builds the first machine that plays chess at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The Harvard-MARK III, the first of the MARK machines to use an internally stored program and indirect addressing, goes into operation, once again under the direction of Howard Aiken. Jay Forrester uses iron cores for the main memory in Whirlwind. This magnetic form of memory will be used practically in 1952 and ‘53. Northrup Aviation receives BINAC from Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp. BINAC was the first computer to operate in America; however, some say the machine never worked the way it was supposed to. The SSEM (small-scale electronic machine) at Manchester University is fully operational. 1950 Hideo Yamachito leads a team that will create Japan's first, large, electronic computer, the Tokyo Automatic Calculator (TAC). The SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) is delivered to and goes into operation at the National Bureau of Standards. Its memory is capable of storing 512 45-bit words. The National Physical Laboratory begins operating the Pilot ACE. The SWAC (Standards Western Automatic Computer) is now operational. The western complement to the SEAC, the SWAC is now the fastest computer in the world. The enhanced Z4 is installed by Konrad Zuse at the Federal Polytechnical Institute (ETH) in Zurich. The Z4 can simultaneously perform an operation and read the next two in line. Alan Turing, using the Interrogator machine, puts a computer and a human in a room to answer questions. According to his theory, known as the Turing Test, if the computer can pass for a human in its answers, it proves that the computer can think. Still today, no computer has passed this test. 1951 Whirlwind, which is used for problems requiring real-time work, is in operation at the U.S. Navy's Office of Research and Invention. An Wang of China founds Wang Laboratories Inc. in Boston. The company would later become a major computer manufacturer. The 7-foot x 19-foot SSEM (small-scale electronic machine) is dismantled because Manchester University needs the space. The first business computer, a Lyons Electronic Office (LEO), is completed by T. Raymond Thompson, John Simmons, and their team at the Lyons Co. The first commercial computer, dubbed the "First Ferranti MARK I," is now functional at Manchester University. The first computer sold commercially in the United States, the UNIVAC, is installed at the U.S. Census Bureau. It's capable of performing 8,333 additions or 555 multiplications a second. The Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) machine is now in limited operation. The initial test for the IAS involves calculations integral to the design of the hydrogen bomb. 1952 The Harvard-MARK IV, the last of How ard Aiken's machines and the one with an increased speed because of its ferrite magnetic cores, is in operation at Harvard University. Andrew Donald Booth and his father sell fairly reliable working magnetic drum memories for use in computers. MANIAC and ORDVAC, two versions of the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) machine, are now functional. With only 7% of the votes in, the UNIVAC correctly predicts that Dwight D. Eisenhower will win the presidential race, leading to a widespread realization of the possibilities of computers. The Ferranti MARK I, also known as the Manchester Electronic Computer MARK II (a copy of the original MARK I, not an improvement), is installed at the University of Toronto. IBM World Headquarters receives the first IBM 701. The machine has 256 40-bit words of main memory and can perform 2,200 multiplications per second. The Moore School finally has a finished version of the EDVAC, with a clock speed of one megahertz (MHz). 1953 A magnetic memory smaller and faster than existing vacuum tube memories is built at MIT. The 701 becomes available to the scientific community. A total of 19 are produced and sold. 1954 IBM produces and markets the 650, a useful workhorse computer. The company produces more than 1,800 in an eight-year span. IBM publishes the first version of FORTRAN (formula translator) and begins work on FORTRAN II. The influential FORTRAN, created by a team led by John Backus, will be considered the first true high-level programming language. DEUCE, a flight simulation package, is constructed by English Electric. Texas Instruments physicist Gordon Teal perfects a way of making transistors out of inexpensive silicon instead of more costly germanium. 1955 Dartmouth College's John McCarthy coins the term "artificial intelligence." Bell Labs introduces its first transistor computer. Transistors are faster, smaller, and create less heat than traditional vacuum tubes, making these computers much more efficient. The ENIAC is turned off for the last time. It's estimated to have done more arithmetic than the entire human race had done prior to 1945. 1956 Bell Labs scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley share the Nobel Prize in physics for inventing the transistor. The Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC) is under development at UNIVAC, a company that competes with IBM. The LARC will be the last major effort to create a machine based upon the decimal-only memory storage concept. IBM's 305 RAMAC, the first computer with a hard disk drive, is shipped. Manchester University begins the ATLAS computer project, a design for an efficient supercomputer capable of primitive multitasking. 1957 Kenneth Olsen founds Digital Equipment Corp., which will later become a major network computer manufacturer on par with the likes of IBM. Cornell University begins the first computerized concordance, indexing the work of English poet and critic Matthew Arnold. The GPS (General Problem Solver) program is written by Allen Newell, H. A. Simon, and J. C. Shaw. This ambitious program is made to potentially solve all problems. John McCarthy creates the LISP programming language, which is said to represent commonsense knowledge and becomes associated with the growing field of artificial intelligence. Philco delivers the TRANSAC S-2000, one of the first transistorized computers. Russia launches the first artificial satellite, named Sputnik. 1958-59 Inventors at Fairchild Semiconductor and Texas Instruments are simultaneously creating the integrated circuit, which combines the necessary components of a computer into one unit, thereby saving space, doing away with the need for wiring components together, and increasing reliability. 1958 The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is renamed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). President Eisenhower's Christmas address is the first voice transmission from a satellite. 1959 The Harvard-MARK I is turned off for the last time. Most of the manufacturers of scientific machines have adopted the successful FORTRAN language rather than be faced with trying to produce a new language that is as good. 1959-60 Motorola produces the two-way, fully transistorized mobile radio. 1960 IBM's 1400 series machines, aimed specifically at the business market, are being distributed. The COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) programming language is invented. One of the unique facets of COBOL is its attempt to stay close to the spoken language. Psychologist Frank Rosenblatt creates the Mark I Perceptron, which has an "eye" that can learn to identify its ABCs. 1961 The first Stretch computer, a computer with 100 times the power of any computer in production, is delivered to Los Alamos, N.M. Hewlett-Packard stock is accepted by the New York Stock Exchange for national and international trading. Jay Forrester, the author of "Industrial Dynamics," explains how the DYNAMO programming language can help manage a company. General Motors puts the first industrial robot—the 4,000-pound Unimate—to work in a New Jersey factory. 1962 Fairchild Semiconductor and Texas Instruments begin mass-producing the integrated circuit. Manchester University installs the first ATLAS computer. One of ATLAS' unique traits is an early form of virtual memory. For the first time, IBM's U.S.-based annual computer revenue (at $1 billion) surpasses its other revenue. A NASA rocket, the Mariner II, is equipped with a Motorola transmitter on its trip to Venus. The APL (A Programming Language), which is a way of notating mathematical formulas on the computer, is invented. The New York Times, foreseeing a "global newspaper," sends pages to its edition in Paris via photo facsimile. 1963 Doug Engelbart invents and patents the first computer mouse. Integrated circuits make their appearance in a commercial product: the hearing aid. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), an association of engineers, scientists, and students, is founded. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is developed to standardize data exchange among computers. 1964 Dartmouth University's John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz develop BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Language) because they want a simple computer programming language. The PL/1 programming language, a supposed "Super Language," is invented. It is a combination of FORTRAN and COBOL. The first computerized encyclopedia is invented at the Systems Development Corp. Motorola equipment is used to retrieve images of Mars. The picture-phone is first displayed at the New York World's Fair. American Airlines and IBM introduce the Semi-Automated Business Research Environment, or SABRE, which computerizes the airline reservation system. It operates in real-time and can transmit flight information in seconds. 1965 Ted Nelson coins the term "hypertext," which refers to text that is not necessarily linear. Digital Equipment's PDP-8 is the first minicomputer. Donald Davies invents "packet switching," which is a new concept for computer communications. Packet switching involves breaking down a message or information into small pieces and sending them to a new location over communications lines. The technology will play an integral part in the premise of the Internet. Harvard and MIT start computer dating services, and Dartmouth begins a computer date-rating service. The number of British patent applications reaches 55,507, up from about 26,000 in 1900 and 100 in 1800. 1966 MIT's Joseph Weizenbaum writes a program, called ELIZA, that makes the computer act as a psychotherapist. The first personal computer club, the Amateur Computer Society, is established by Stephen B. Gray. The group publishes the ACS, which will be considered the first personal computer newsletter. 1967 IBM creates the first floppy disk. The LOGO programming language is developed. LOGO will later be known for its "turtle graphics," a simplified interface useful for teaching children and computer "newbies." 1968 Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore co-found Intel Corp., which will be known for the microprocessor. Seiko markets a miniature printer for use with calculators. 1969 Control Data Corp., led by Seymour Cray, releases the CDC 7600, which is often considered to be the first supercomputer. Unix, a free operating system still in use today, is developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories. Gary Starkweather, while working for Xerox, invents the laser printer. A Motorola transponder transmitter is used to relay Neil Armstrong's words from the moon to Earth. The U.S. Department of Defense sets up the ARPANet (Advanced Research Projects Agency), a network able to withstand partial destruction from bombs or other disasters and still function. This was the Internet in its fledgling stage. Jean Sammet publishes "Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals," which many consider the standard book about programming languages. CompuServe, the first commercial online service, is established. Seiko develops the world's first quartz wristwatch. Shakey, a fully mobile but wobbly and slow robot, makes the rounds at the Stanford Research Institute. 1970 Intel announces the 1103, a new memory chip containing more than 1,000 bits of information. This chip is classified as random-access memory (RAM), which means the user can write instructions into the computer's memory. The Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) is established to perform basic computing and electronics research. The first ATM gets a lukewarm response in Georgia. 1971 The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, is designed. This single chip contains all the basic parts of a central processor. The Pascal programming language is invented by Niklaus Wirth. The program, a compact, step-by-step language, is used primarily as a teaching tool. Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) begins producing the first large-scale integrated calculator kit in the United States. 1972 Philippe Rouseel invents PROLOG, a new type of programming language, for the Artificial Intelligence Group at the University of Marseilles. Atari releases Pong, the first commercial video game, with Asteroids soon to follow. Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs invents the C programming language. C will become the practical standard in microcomputers and workstations. Radio Shack introduces its first calculator. The compact disc is invented in the United States. 1973 The term "microcomputer" appears in print. Robert Metcalfe creates the Ethernet, a local-area network (LAN), to link the minicomputers at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). As of 1995, the Ethernet connected more than 50 million computers. Interactive laser discs make their debut. Wang Laboratories releases the easy-to-use Wang Word-Processing System, which includes a keyboard, printer, and storage device. 1974 Intel's improved microprocessor chip, the 8080 (which is designed for general use), becomes the standard in the microcomputing industry. The first Toshiba floppy disk drive is introduced. Jack S. Kilby, Jerry D. Merryman, and James Van Tassel of Texas Instruments are granted the patent for the electronic handheld calculator. 1975 MITS ships one of the first PCs, the Altair 8800 with one kilobyte (KB) of memory, as a $397 mail-order kit. Edward Roberts and his company (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems [MITS]) are said to have coined the term "personal computer." Paul Allen and Bill Gates write the first computer language program for personal computers, which is a form of BASIC designed for the Altair. Gates drops out of Harvard and founds Microsoft with Allen. MOS Technology 6502 (which is fast, powerful, and cheap) is widely used in popular home computers. This technology adds two 8-bit numbers in a millionth of a second. The Byte Shop, one of the first computer stores, opens in California. About two years later, owner Paul Terrell will sell a chain of 74 Byte Shops for $4 million. U.S. air traffic control is fully computerized. 1976 Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs found Apple Computer, which will become a multimillion dollar company and play a major role in the computer industry. Bill Gates publishes a letter in the Altair user newsletter, complaining of illegal copies of BASIC. Microsoft introduces an improved version of BASIC. The first convention of computer hobbyist clubs is held in New Jersey. 1977 Apple Computer Inc., Radio Shack, and Commodore all introduce mass-market computers, beginning the PC era and the microcomputer race. Apple Computer's Apple II, the first personal computer with color graphics, debuts, and the now-famous Apple logo is designed by Rob Janoff of Regis McKenna Advertising. Commodore announces that the $495 PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) will be a self-contained unit, with a central processing unit (CPU), random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), keyboard, monitor, and tape recorder all in one package. Radio Shack's TRS-80 Model I Microcomputer is introduced. Radio Shack calls a press conference at the New York Stock Exchange to announce its debut, but a bomb goes off three blocks away, and Radio Shack is unable to make the announcement. Microsoft sells the license for BASIC to Radio Shack and Apple and introduces the program in Japan. In Morristown, N.J., a computer retail franchise opens under the name Computer Shack. The company is later renamed ComputerLand (after opposition from Radio Shack) and becomes a leading hardware and software outlet. A week-long computer camp—the first of its kind—takes place in Indiana. 1978 Epson introduces the TX-80, which is the first commercially successful dot matrix printer for personal computers. Microsoft introduces a new version of COBOL. Microsoft and ASCII Corp. in Japan begin an operating agreement, making ASCII Microsoft's first Far East connection. Intel invents the 8086. It uses 29,000 transistors, costs $360, and can access one megabyte (MB) of memory. The 5.25-inch floppy disk is the industry standard. Ward Christensen and Randy Seuss have the first major microcomputer bulletin board up and running in Chicago. New York City is home to the first Personal Computer Expo. 1979 Software Arts Inc.'s VisiCalc, the first electronic spreadsheet and business program for PCs, is released. Epson improves upon the TX-80 with another dot matrix printer, the MX-80, which soon becomes an industry standard. The Motorola 68000, one of the most powerful and versatile 16-bit chips, performs multiplication as a single operation rather than multiple addition operations and adds two 16-bit numbers in 240 billionths of a second. The Apple II Plus is introduced. It has 48 kilobytes (KB) of memory and sells for around $1,200. Texas Instruments enters the microcomputer market with the TI 99/4 personal computer, which sells for $1,500. Hayes markets its first modem, which sets the industry standard for modems in years to come. Most modems produced today are Hayes-compatible. Atari introduces a coin-operated version of Asteroids. More than half a million computers are in use in the United States. 1980 IBM hires Paul Allen and Bill Gates to create an operating system for a new PC. The pair buys the rights to a simple operating system manufactured by Seattle Computer Products and use it as a template. IBM allows Allen and Gates to retain the marketing rights to the operating system, called DOS. MS-DOS (Microsoft's version) and PC DOS (IBM's version) soon become the most popular operating systems. Microsoft licenses Unix and starts to develop a PC version, XENIX. IBM hires Microsoft to develop versions of BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and Pascal for the PC being developed by IBM. The first Tandy Color Computer is introduced. John Bell invents the first easy database program, the Personal Filing System (PFS), to run on Apple II computers. More than 1 million computers are in use in the United States. 1981 IBM joins the personal computer race with its IBM PC, which runs the new DOS operating system. BITNET, one of the first wide-area networks (WAN), is founded to serve academic institutions. It will become the largest computer network before being overshadowed by the Internet. Microsoft establishes a national retail sales network and formally incorporates, becoming Microsoft Inc. Xerox introduces the graphical Star workstation, which greatly influences the development of Apple's future computer models, Lisa and Macintosh, as well as Microsoft's Windows. Hayes introduces the Smartmodem 300 with its standard-setting AT command set and an operating speed of 300 bits per second (bps). Adam Osborne introduces the Osborne I, the first successful "portable" computer, which weighs 25 pounds. The Hewlett-Packard Superchip, the first 32-bit microprocessor, adds two 32-bit numbers in 55 billionths of a second. Commodore ships the VIC-20, soon to be the world's most popular computer, at $299.95. Logitech, a computer peripherals company, is founded in Apples, Switzerland. Hayes releases the Smartmodem 1200, which transfers data at 1,200 bits per second (bps). 1982 Peter Norton creates Norton Utilities, a file recovery program. Microsoft releases FORTRAN for the PC, COBOL for MS-DOS, and Multiplan for the Apple II and CP/M machines. Microsoft establishes a subsidiary in England, Microsoft Ltd., beginning a foreign sales effort. WordPerfect 1.0, a word processing program that will become one of the market's most popular, is introduced by WordPerfect Corp. Lotus Development Corp. is founded, and Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet program, is introduced. Compaq Computer Corp. is founded by Rod Canion and other Texas Instruments Inc. engineers. Compaq introduces the first portable clone of the IBM PC and becomes IBM's biggest challenger in the corporate market. Commodore begins selling the Commodore 64, an improvement on the VIC-20. It contains 64 kilobytes (KB) of random-access memory (RAM) and contains Microsoft BASIC as an operating system. In the next year, the price drops from $600 to $200, helping to make it the best-selling computer of all time. Epson introduces the HX-20, the first notebook-sized portable computer. MS-DOS version 1.25 is released. The installed user base for MS-DOS is 232,000. Six-year-old Apple Computer is the first personal computer manufacturer to hit the $1 billion mark for annual sales. 1983 The PC is Time magazine's "man of the year." The Apple IIe is introduced. With 64 kilobytes (KB) of random-access memory (RAM), a one megahertz (MHz) 6502 processor, and running Applesoft BASIC, it sells for $1,400. Microsoft releases Microsoft Word 1.0, a word processing program that will become one of the market's most popular. Lotus Development Corp.'s Lotus 1-2-3 becomes the spreadsheet software of choice, ousting VisiCalc, the spreadsheet that had first presented a reason for many users to buy a PC. Tandy, Epson, and NEC all sell notebook computers, but only Tandy's (the Model 100) becomes popular because of its lower price ($499) and easier-to-use interface. PC-Draw, the first IBM PC-based graphics program, is introduced. More than 10 million computers are in use in the United States. 1984 Appleworks, a suite of programs containing a word processor, database manager, and spreadsheet, is released. Microsoft's Bill Gates is featured on the cover of Time magazine. The 3.5-inch diskette debuts and eventually becomes the industry's preferred diskette size. Hewlett-Packard's LaserJet laser printer, which retails for $3,495, brings high-quality printing to PCs. Hayes introduces Smartcom II, which is communications software for the IBM PC, to be used with Hayes modems. Software for modems lets users automatically dial or answer calls, transfer and process data, and disconnect calls. Hayes releases a modem capable of sending data at 2400 bits per second (bps). Dell Computer is founded in Austin, Texas. The company will later become a major force in mail-order computer sales. The Apple II compact computer is introduced. With 128 kilobytes (KB) of random-access memory (RAM) and a 5.25-inch diskette drive, the system weighs just 7.5 pounds and costs $1,300. In a commercial during the Super Bowl, Apple Computer introduces the Macintosh, a computer with a graphical user interface. Instead of typing commands, users select options with a mouse or other pointing device. In six months, sales of "the computer for the rest of us," as the advertisements call it,reach 100,000. The Computer Museum opens in downtown Boston. Microsoft introduces MS-DOS 3.0 for the IBM PC AT and MS-DOS 3.1 for networks; Multi-plan, BASIC, and Word 1.0 for the Macintosh; and Project (a project planning and management applications package) and Chart (a graphics program) for the PC and Macintosh. The Tandy 1000 personal computer is introduced and becomes the best-selling IBM-compatible computer of the year. IBM introduces the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) video card with higher resolution, more colors, and a quicker response than previous video cards. University of Southern California professor Fred Cohen creates alarm when he warns the public about computer viruses. Seiko introduces the first wristwatch computer. 1985 Microsoft and IBM begin collaborating on a next-generation operating system (OS/2). The computer company Gateway 2000 is founded in Sioux City, Iowa. The company later becomes a major force in mail-order computer sales. IBM releases the Topview graphical environment, the precursor to OS/2's graphical interface. Intel introduces the 80386, a 16-megahertz (MHz) processor that incorporates 275,000 transistors. The processor sells for $299 and is able to access four gigabytes (GB) of memory. Aldus Corp. introduces PageMaker for the Macintosh, a program that lets users mix type and graphics on a page. The combination of this software and the new Apple LaserWriter laser printer begin the era of desktop publishing. Microsoft Windows 1.0 is shipped. Selling for $100, it provides a much easier interface for users to navigate. Microsoft introduces more than 20 new computer languages, operating system versions, software products, and computer books. Quarterdeck's DESQview is the first software to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to DOS applications. In A Vision, the first graphics program for Microsoft Windows, is introduced; Micrografx is the first independent vendor to market a Windows-based product. The Nintendo Entertainment System makes its debut. 1986 Apple introduces Mac Plus. It contains one megabyte (MB) of random-access memory (RAM), sells for $2,600, and includes a new keyboard that contains cursors and a numeric keypad. Compaq introduces the first 386-based PC-compatible computer, beating IBM to the 80386 market. More than 30 million computers are in use in the United States. IBM introduces its first laptop computer, the PC Convertible, which has 256 kilobytes (KB) of random-access memory (RAM), two 720KB diskette drives, and sells for $2,000. However, it's Toshiba's laptop clone that becomes the hit. Microsoft is listed on the New York Stock Exchange. It sells shares to the public at $21 each, making Bill Gates the world's youngest billionaire. 1987 Hayes demonstrates its ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) adapter, which is a modem for ISDN lines, providing speeds up to four times greater than the fastest modem on a telephone line. Microsoft purchases Forethought Inc., the company that developed the presentation software PowerPoint. PowerPoint becomes available for Macintosh and PC and as part of Microsoft Office. Microsoft introduces Windows 2.0 and Microsoft Works. Works is an integrated applications package for new users and includes a word processor based upon Microsoft Word, a spreadsheet based upon Multiplan and Excel, and a database. Microsoft and IBM release OS/2 1.0 and claim it will replace MS-DOS. Microsoft stock hits $100 per share. The expandable Mac SE is introduced at $2,900. IBM introduces the PS/2 personal computer, which has improved graphics, a 3.5-inch diskette drive, and a proprietary bus to help fend off the clone makers. IBM sends clone manufacturers letters demanding retroactive licensing fees. The Computer Security Act is passed, requiring that federal agencies develop computer security plans to protect sensitive, but unclassified, information and start security training programs. 1988 About 45 million PCs are in use in the United States. Apple files a copyright infringement (of the Macintosh operating system) lawsuit against Microsoft for Windows 2.03 and Hewlett-Packard for New Wave (a graphical interface kit). Microsoft introduces PC Works and OS/2 LAN Manager for networked PCs and Microsoft Publisher, a desktop publishing program for novice users. The installed base for MS-DOS is approximately 29,550,000. 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposes a way to let scientists browse each other's papers to the European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN). The language and protocol he develops leads to the creation of the World Wide Web. Creative Labs introduces SoundBlaster, a sound card for the PC that contains an 11-voice FM synthesizer with text-to-speech, digitized voice input/output, a MIDI port, a joystick port, and bundled software. GRiD Systems Corp. announces the GRiD-PAD, the first pen-based computer. More than 100 million computers are in use worldwide. Intel releases the 486DX processor, with more than 1 million transistors and multitasking capabilities. Hayes announces an enhancement of the AT command set for modems to accommodate ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) technology. Quarterdeck is granted a patent for creating a way to display more than one DOS application on-screen inside Windows. Poqet announces the Poqet PC, the first pocket-sized MS-DOS-compatible computer. 1990 Microsoft releases Windows 3.0, a complete rewrite of previous versions and one in which most desktop users will eventually spend most of their time. Windows 3.0 uses a graphical user interface (GUI), and Microsoft sells more than 3 million copies of Windows 3.0 in one year. Microsoft exceeds $1 billion in sales in a single year, the first computer-related company to do so. Microsoft releases its first product for the Russian market, Russian DOS 4.01. The World, the first commercial provider of Internet dial-up access, comes online. Creative Labs introduces the SoundBlaster Pro. The 8-bit stereo sound system, which includes a CD-ROM interface, a joystick port, and stereo recording, is accepted as the standard for multimedia PCs. SoundBlaster becomes the best-selling add-on board for the personal computer market. Quarterdeck releases its memory management software, QEMM386 version 5.1. It becomes the fastest-selling software program in the United States. The Multimedia Personal Computer (MPC) standards are developed by Tandy and Microsoft. These standards denote the specifications a computer needs to be considered capable of running multimedia software. Microsoft and IBM stop working together to develop operating systems. The first issue of PC Novice is published. 1991 Gopher, a menu-driven, search-and-retrieval tool that helps Internet users locate information online, is developed at the University of Minnesota. In an effort to bring lower-cost 486 performance to the mainstream user, Intel introduces the 486SX chip. The chip performs at 20 megahertz (MHz) and sells for $258. The World Wide Web is launched. Tim Berners-Lee, a scientist at the European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland develops the Web as a research tool. Following its decision not to develop operating systems cooperatively with IBM, Microsoft changes the name of OS/2 to Windows NT. Although IBM had expected to sell a maximum of 250,000 personal computers, sales surpass 60 million units in the business market. However, the year marks the company's first revenue decline in almost half a century. Logitech ships its 10 millionth mouse. Although the GRiD Systems Corp.'s GRiD-PAD and MicroSlate Inc.'s Datellite 300 are the only two computers currently available that recognize handwriting and allow data to be input using a special pen, the push for handwriting recognition gains momentum as 30 companies announce plans to develop similar computers. Creative Labs releases a multimedia upgrade kit that includes a CD-ROM drive, the SoundBlaster Pro sound card, a MIDI kit, and a variety of software applications. The kit includes all the tools needed to meet the MPC standards. Sony, Philips, and Microsoft introduce CD-ROM extended architecture, which makes it possible for text and video to be narrated in CD-ROM software. 1992 Bill Gates is now the second richest man in the United States, with a net worth estimated at more than $4 billion. Microsoft introduces Windows 3.1. It sells more than 1 million copies within the first two months of its release. The number of host computers on the Internet passes the 1 million mark. Microsoft and IBM agree to sever all ties that connect the two companies but sign a separation document that allows source-code sharing for current operating systems until September 1993. Intel releases the 486DX2 chip with a clock-doubling ability that generates a higher operating speed. Radio Shack releases the Tandy Sensation! MPC, the first personal computer based upon the MPC specification. 1993 Fifty World Wide Web servers are known to exist as of January. President Bill Clinton puts the White House online with a World Wide Web page and E-mail addresses for the president, vice president, and first lady. Microsoft releases Windows NT, Microsoft Office 4.0, and MS-DOS 6.0, which includes the ill-fated DoubleSpace compression utility. Stac Electronics later sues Microsoft for patent infringement in regards to the DoubleSpace utility. In subsequent versions of MS-DOS, Microsoft removes the utility and eventually replaces it with DriveSpace. Intel releases the Pentium processor. This 60 megahertz (MHz) processor incorporates 3.2 million transistors and sells for $878. Gateway 2000 sells its millionth computer. Microsoft releases Windows NT 3.1, Windows for Workgroups 3.11, and MS-DOS 6.2. Mosaic, the first graphical Web browser, is released by the NCSA (National Center for Supercomputing Applications) at the University of Illinois. John Scully is named president of Apple Computers Inc. Scully is best known for encouraging Apple to invent and sell a palmtop computer called the Newton. The Internet experiences massive growth. The World Wide Web grows 341,634%; Gopher grows at a rate of 997%. IBM announces a year-end loss of $8.1 billion. The Environmental Protection Agency, along with 50 computer companies, establishes Energy Star guidelines, which aim to decrease the amount of power that PCs use when they're idle. 1994 Marc Andreessen and James H. Clark found Netscape Communications and release Netscape Navigator browser software, which provides an easy, point-and-click method of navigating the Internet. Commodore Computers, which sold the famous Commodore 64 personal computer, files bankruptcy. The Internet celebrates its 25th anniversary. Microsoft purchases Softimage Inc., a Montreal-based supplier of Hollywood special effects tools, for $130 million in stock. Softimage Inc.'s tools were involved in creating the special effects for "Jurassic Park" and other films. After Stac Electronics successfully sues Microsoft for patent infringement in regards to the DoubleSpace utility included in MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.2, Microsoft releases MS-DOS 6.21, which has no disk compression utility. Later that year, Microsoft releases MS-DOS 6.22 with the DriveSpace disk compression utility. Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, US West, Telstra, Deutsche Telekom, NTT, Olivetti, Anderson, and Alcatel join forces in an effort to develop the hardware and software necessary for the actualization of interactive television. Microsoft and Visa International enter an agreement whereby Microsoft will develop software that will allow for electronic shopping. IBM releases OS/2 Warp 3.0. It will sell 4 million copies during the next year. Microsoft releases the beta version of its new operating system, mysteriously referred to only as "Chicago." Chicago will later be released as Windows 95. Because of questions regarding potential antitrust violations surrounding the distribution of its operating systems, Microsoft signs a consent agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice and the European Union to cease its discounting practices related to MS-DOS and Windows. 1995 Apple finally allows other companies to clone the Macintosh computer. Hewlett-Packard, Borland, Dell, and Lotus are among 50 companies in the PC industry who agree to sell and service their products over The Microsoft Network. Microsoft releases Microsoft Bob, a graphical user interface designed for the home user. In the first sixth months, a mere 30,000 units are sold. Following the formation of DreamWorks SKG, the new entertainment studio headed by Hollywood moguls Steven Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and David Geffen, Microsoft announces that it has formed a joint venture with the company. This new joint-venture software company, called DreamWorks Interactive, will develop and create entertainment multimedia software for home consumers. A number of Internet-related companies go public. Netscape has the most successful initial public offering (IPO), opening at $28 per share and closing at $58 per share. By the day's end, the company, which gave away its Web browser and never made a profit, had increased its worth to $2.2 billion. This was the third-largest NASDAQ IPO share value ever. Microsoft and General Electric's NBC television network form a partnership to develop interactive television programs. After Microsoft announced its intentions to purchase Intuit, the U.S. Department of Justice files suit to stop Microsoft. As a result, Microsoft withdraws its offer. Microsoft releases Windows 95 (Win95), Microsoft Office 95 and the online Microsoft Network. More than 1 million copies of Win95 are sold in the first four days of its release. Operation Home Front allows U.S. soldiers in the field to communicate via the Internet with stateside family members. Intuit, the maker of the financial software Quicken, announces that it is working with 19 financial institutions, including American Express, Chase Manhattan Bank, and Wells Fargo, to develop an online link that will let customers with modems dial into their accounts. Although it costs Intel nearly $475 million to do so, the processor manufacturer destroys 1.5 million mathematically flawed Pentium chips. A New York judge rules that Prodigy Services Co. is responsible for the content of a libelous message posted by a subscriber. Because Prodigy claimed it tried to censor some obscene material, the court ruled that the online service was responsible for all material posted. 1996 Intel releases the 200 megahertz (MHz) P6, or Pentium Pro, chip, which is the next generation of processors. IBM and Sears sell the Prodigy online service to a group of investors called Internet Wireless. AT&T introduces Worldnet, which provides AT&T customers in certain cities with Internet access and five free hours of use each month. The IBM computer Deep Blue beats chess master Garry Kasparov in two chess matches (although Kasparov went on to win the series). Deep Blue proved that computers may be able to come close to "thinking" and helping humans solve complex problems in many industries. "Java" and "telephony" are the buzzwords on the Internet. Java allows small applications, called applets, to be run on Web sites, expanding the capabilities of the World Wide Web. Telephony lets users talk to each other over the Internet without paying long-distance telephone charges. The America's Carriers Telecommunication Association (ACTA), acting on behalf of U.S. regional long-distance carriers, asks the FCC to subject Internet telephony to the same access charges that other long-distance carriers pay. Intel announces that the MMX processor will be released in 1997. The processor will incorporate a video accelerator into the chip itself. Bill Gates has a net worth of $18 billion, which makes him the richest man in the United States. In a deal valued at about $300 million, NEC Corp., the largest seller of PCs in Japan, merges its PC operations outside Japan with Packard Bell, the No. 2 worldwide seller of PCs in 1995. NBC and Microsoft offer intercasting just in time for the 1996 Summer Olympics. Intercasting combines the flexibility of the Internet with the programming content of television to create an interactive viewing experience. The Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Ga., uses technology provided by IBM, including 7,000 PCs, 2,000 pagers and wireless devices, and 90 industrial-strength computers. The IBM network is used by approximately 150,000 athletes, coaches, journalists, and Olympic staff members. Sony enters the PC market with the release of VAIO, a multimedia computer aimed at the home-entertainment market. President Clinton signs into law the Communications Decency Act (CDA) as part of the Telecommunications Bill, which bans the diffusion of obscene materials on the Internet. After German officials claim that 200 of CompuServe's online newsgroups violate German obscenity laws, CompuServe incorporates parental control tools into its interface and restores access to the 200 banned newsgroups. The ENIAC, considered by some the world's first general-purpose computer, celebrates its 50th anniversary. Creative Labs, a leader in the sound card market, enters the graphics card market with its 3D Blaster card, which enhances current three-dimensional graphics. This occurs mostly in games but also in other areas, such as enhancing the images on World Wide Web pages. The game Oregon Trail, which was one of the first edutainment programs, celebrates its 25th anniversary. A prototype of the Personal Area Network (PAN) is introduced by IBM. The PAN is a small computer on a card that sends data through a stream of electric signals throughout a person's body. The body acts as a conductor that lets data travel to and from devices such as pagers, handheld computers, and cellular phones. Exponential Technology announces it will release the X-704 chip, a microprocessor that can run Apple Macintosh software at up to 533 megahertz (MHz). Each chip will cost $1,000. Apple stock sinks to a 10-year low of less than $18 after reporting a 26% loss in sales in May. In Massachusetts, speeding tickets and car registration renewals can be done online via the Registry of Motor Vehicles World Wide Web site. Several other states are experimenting with the online registry, as well. Several handheld computers are announced, such as the Pilot from U.S. Robotics, the eMate from Apple Computer Inc., and the Message-Pad, also from Apple. Microsoft releases Windows CE, its operating system for handheld computers. The Supreme Court rules that the Communications Decency Act is unconstitutional because it violates free-speech rights. The act was supposed to prohibit the transmission of "patently offensive" material to children through the Internet. Violating this act was to have been punishable by up to two years in prison and a $250,000 fine. Tandy Corp. announces it is either selling or closing all of its 17 Incredible Universe stores and 19 of its Computer City stores because of low consumer electronic sales and losses in revenue. The Intel supercomputer, which has the primary purpose of simulating nuclear weapons testing, does 6.4 quadrillion mathematical calculations in one hour and 20 minutes, or 1 trillion calculations per second, using 7,264 Intel Pentium processors strung together. The supercomputer is priced at $55 million. WebTV, which is a device that can be used to surf the World Wide Web when hooked into a telephone line and a television, is introduced. WebTV is manufactured by Sony and Philips Magnavox and retails for less than $300. America Online is the largest online service with 6.5 million members. CompuServe is second with 4.5 million users, and The Microsoft Network is third with 1.6 million. Residents of California, New York, Ontario, and Quebec are able to list their E-mail addresses and Web page addresses in the telephone book. MSNBC, a new cable channel combining The Microsoft Network's Web site and NBC News, makes its debut. On its third day of service, MSNBC's first breaking story, the TWA Flight 800 disaster, competes directly with CNN. Acer America Corp. introduces designer home PCs in charcoal and dark green colors instead of the standard beige. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approves high-tech specifications for digital television, which will bring CD-quality sound and sharper images in a format called high definition to home TV sets. Approximately 925 freshmen at Wake Forest University receive IBM ThinkPads, which are portable computers, to use for taking notes, studying, and doing homework. These computers are used extensively on campus and belong to the university until the students receive them at graduation. The Republican National Convention is watched by many all over the world via the Internet. Sun Microsystems releases its line of network computers (NCs), which are devices that do much of what a PC does and are meant to be used in a corporate setting. NCs are attractive to companies because they are much cheaper than PCs and receive most of their information from a centralized network. There are presently 2 million PCs used by the federal government and 2.8 million PCs used by state and local governments in the United States. Apple buys NeXT Software Inc. for $400 million and acquires Steve Jobs, Apple's co-founder, as a consultant. Road Runner, a new online service by Time Warner Inc., makes its debut. It uses a pre-existing cable TV system to provide faster connections. Compaq holds the No. 1 spot as the world's leading seller of personal computers for the third consecutive year. 1997 Intel launches the MMX chip, which is a multimedia upgrade of the Pentium processor. Intel expects the MMX chip to improve the performance of a Pentium-run computer about 10% to 20% on average and up to 60% with programs written specifically for the chip. Several computer manufacturers, such as Compaq, Packard Bell, NEC, and Apple introduce computers costing less than $1,000 with the hopes of selling more home systems. A 67Kbps modem is released by Transend for about $600, which is more than twice the price of most modems. This new modem uses two phone lines simultaneously and promises the same speed for both sending and receiving. America Online (AOL) faces several lawsuits from subscribers who are upset about the difficulties encountered when trying to log on to the service. In response, AOL stops advertising in order to cut down on its capacity overload and offers refunds on a case-by-case basis. The overload is because of the flat rate of $19.95 per month that AOL offers users for unlimited access. Apple Computer Inc. introduces the PowerBook 3400, the fastest laptop computer available, with a 240 megahertz (MHz) processor. The PowerBook 3400 retails for $6,500. IBM's Deep Blue computer defeats worldchampion chess player Garry Kasparov in their second six-game showdown, winning the tie-breaking game in only 62 minutes. Cyrix Corp. releases its 6x86MX processor and claims it will give the same performance as the Pentium II processor. However, a system with Cyrix's chip sells for less than $2,000, while a system containing the Pentium II chip costs more than $2,500. Digital video discs (DVDs) go on sale. They look exactly like music CDs or CD-ROMs but hold more data, such as full-length movies such as "The Wizard of Oz." Microsoft announces that it will no longer make the Windows NT operating system (OS) for the Macintosh platform. This OS is based upon the PowerPC chip, which is an alternative to the Intel Corp. chips found in most personal computers. Microsoft will continue to make Windows NT for Digital Equipment Corp. and Intel chips. Microsoft Corp. buys WebTV Networks for $425 million. CompUSA joins Dell and Gateway in selling build-to-order PCs. Bill Gates, chief executive officer of Microsoft, is the world's richest businessman, according to Forbes magazine. His estimated worth is $36.4 billion. Intel sues Digital Equipment Corp. for patent infringement on technology used to make the Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II processor chips. Digital countersues because Intel refuses to present confidential documents that the company had given Digital to assist in designing computer products. PC Novice magazine changes its name to Smart Computing. The NASA Pathfinder Web site, which is running real-time images sent from the Pathfinder on Mars, receives more than 100 million hits during its first four days, a new popularity record that forces NASA to set up 25 mirror pages to handle the user traffic. Seven new endings for Internet addresses are approved. These endings are .STORE for businesses offering goods, .INFO for information services, .FIRM for businesses or firms, .REC for recreational, .NOM for personal sites, .ARTS for cultural groups, and .WEB for sites emphasizing the World Wide Web. Microsoft is working on its own search engine, code-named "Yukon," for the Internet and hopes to release a final version at the beginning of 1998. Microsoft, with the help of Toshiba, invites 50 school districts to participate in "Make Vision A Reality," a program in which students use laptop computers to take notes, study, and do homework. The U.S. Senate approves the removal of computer games from government computers. The government isn't allowed to purchase new computers with preinstalled games. Microsoft releases Microsoft Office 97 and announces that its new operating system, Windows 98, will be released in the spring of 1998. 3Com buys $6.6 billion in U.S. Robotics stock, making the consolidation the largest in the history of computer companies. Apple Computer Inc. introduces Mac OS 8, a new version of the Macintosh operating system. The U.S. Postal Service looks at a plan to create electronic stamps for letters and packages. U.S. students in kindergarten through the 12th grade have access to 6.3 million computers with a ratio of 7.3 students per computer. A security flaw is discovered in the Microsoft Internet Explorer Web browser that allows a "Webmaster" to have access to files and programs on someone else's computer. A Nielsen survey is released showing that almost one in four (23%) adults use the Internet with 42% of those being women, which is up from 10% five years ago. Corporations and companies with computer networks are searching for the answer to the year 2000 glitch. This is a problem because a lot of computer software will malfunction when the millennium changes because the software uses the last two digits of a year and won't be able to understand that the dates are for a new century. The president and chief executive officer of CompuServe, the second largest online service in the United States, resign. United Airlines begins to install power ports for portable computers on its planes that make major international or long-range flights. Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple Computer Inc. shortly after CEO Gil Amelio is ousted. Microsoft agrees to continue making software in Macintosh format, and Apple agrees to make Microsoft Internet Explorer the browser choice for Macintosh computers. The Bandai Company has trouble keeping the Tama-gotch, or "cute little egg," on store shelves. The Tama-gotch is a keychain computer game in which the user must take care of it as though it were a small pet by feeding it, playing with it, and disciplining it. 1998 According to the Newspaper Association of America, more than 500 daily newspapers have registered with online services, including Web sites and other online companies. WebTV users experience a major malfunction when the surge in new post-holiday customers strains WebTV's network beyond capacity. Compaq Computer Corp. purchases Digital Equipment Corp. for $9 billion. Microsoft invites average computer users to join its Consumer Beta Preview Program for its upcoming operating system, Windows 98, for about $30 per trial kit. What once was the egg experiment-turned-Tamagotchi now emerges as a virtual lover. Solar Tune Electronics releases the My Lover device, which strongly resembles the care-taking tactics involved with the virtual pet, the Tamagotchi, in the hopes that it will give teen-agers "some experience, and teach them how to respect others." A Market Intelligence report cites the number of U.S. households that own at least one personal computer rose by 11.4% since 1997. By January 1998, more than 45 million households, or 44.8% of the total number of U.S. households, owns a personal computer, compared with the 1997 percentage of 40.7. Hearings open between Microsoft and the U.S. Department of Justice concerning whether or not Microsoft has a monopoly on the software market because PC manufacturers, due to agreements with the giant software company, automatically include Windows 95 (and later Windows 98) and Microsoft Internet Explorer on nearly every PC made. The Microsoft lawsuit elicits a new wave of jokes and public disdain concerning the company. In the midst of the Congressional hearings, Scott McNealy, founder and CEO of Sun Microsystems Inc., says, "The only thing I'd rather own than Windows is English, or Chinese, or Spanish because then I could charge you a $249 right to speak English, and I could charge you an upgrade fee when I add new letters like ‘N' and ‘T.'" And with equal cynicism, comedian Dennis Miller quips in an HBO special, "Bill Gates is only a white Persian cat and a monocle away from being the villain in a James Bond movie." Netscape, in a rush to outdo its competitor Microsoft, announces its Navigator 5.0 and Communicator 5.0 products will be free. Even more newsworthy, however, Netscape reveals the source code for Navigator on its Web site. Reports say "Internet addiction" is a growing problem on college campuses. Several studies, including one from the University of Michigan, says freshman and sophomore undergraduates spend an average of 10 hours per week online. To counter this, some universities enact programs to keep students offline. In his State of the Union address, President Clinton announces that "every child can stretch a hand across a keyboard and reach every book ever written, every painting ever painted, every symphony ever composed." The gesture represents Clinton's support for the future of the Internet, because of what it can do for education. Bill Gates, is hit in the face with a cream pie at a computer conference in Belgium. L'Antartreur, a group infamous for tossing pies at the well-known and well-to-do, confesses to the assault; Gates, however, presses no charges. The event spurs another wave of public scrutiny, and a computer game, "Pie Bill Gates," migrates through E-mail servers worldwide. Twenty-seven states collude with the Department of Justice in the antitrust lawsuit against Microsoft Corp. Vice President Al Gore announces he has plans to have NASA launch a $20 million to $50 million satellite that will continuously transmit pictures of Earth to Internet and television users. The satellite will provide a constant daytime view of the planet. A demonstration version of Windows 98 crashes on Bill Gates at Comdex (a computer industry-wide hardware and software trade show) in Chicago. During the presentation of the new operating system, Windows 98 went down when one of Gates' assistants attempted to install a scanner. NASA commands all scientists to withhold reports of "killer asteroids" for at least 72 hours after discovery. NASA's action stands to avoid the mass hysteria that could result if such information were to be spread over the Internet. Cybercolumnist Matt Drudge "scoops" Newsweek with the first news of President Clinton's sexual indiscretions with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Such fast action prompts media outlets around the world to question the credibility of news that is posted on the Internet. Koko, the 26-year-old, 300-pound gorilla renown for her mastery of American Sign Language and ability to recognize nearly 2,000 words of spoken English, went online for the first "interspecies online chat," sponsored by America Online and Envirolink. Lasting for 45 minutes, Koko signed her answers to nearly 8,000 users' questions, which went to a translator who then typed in Koko's responses. The University of Manchester celebrates on June 21 the 50th anniversary of the birth of the modern computer. The university oversaw the birth and evolution of the first five commercial computers, from the "Baby" created in 1948, to the first "modern" computer, released in 1975. The last computer emerged as the predecessor for today's personal computer. Windows 98 is officially released by Microsoft on June 25. In an attempt to help consumers keep up with the technology curve, Gateway introduces its Your:)Ware program. With this program (and its stipulations), users can trade in their computer and get a credit toward a new Gateway machine every two to four years. Apple introduces the iMac, an aqua-blue futuristic-looking computer that is without a 3.5-inch 1.4MB diskette drive. Apple contends the diskette drive is on its way to extinction, saying most files are either saved on media with much larger storage spaces, such as CD-ROMs, or are transferred via E-mail. However, most other computer systems still ship with the drive installed. |
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